© M. Murakami et al., Published by EDP Sciences, 2025

1 Introduction

The recovery of people and communities affected by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident in March 2011 raised a series of questions and challenges that prompted experts in environmental science, medicine, nursing and other relevant fields to integrate reflections that fall within the Social Sciences and Humanities (SSH) domain.

The presence of radioactivity has disrupted the well-being of individuals and led to restrictions in daily life, modifying lifestyles and working conditions, and a change in the demographics of communities due to large numbers of people emigrating. This has been characterised by a breakdown in trust in experts and authorities and a feeling of lack of control in daily life (Ando, 2018; Tsujikawa et al., 2016). There have also been profound changes in the agricultural and fishing sectors and several constraints on maintaining economic activities (Schneider et al., 2021). These changes have put a global strain on well-being and mental health, with people feeling helpless, anxious, discouraged and frustrated (Abeysinghe et al., 2022; Murakami et al., 2020). Concern about potential harm to children’s health has remained particularly high (Mashiko et al., 2017; Sawano et al., 2019).

Drawing the lessons from the management of the consequences of the Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents, ICRP clearly emphasizes that the consequences of an accident go far beyond radiation-induced health effects due to radiological exposures (ICRP, 2021). It stresses that an accident has “large and long-lasting societal, environmental, and economic consequences” (ICRP, 2020). In this perspective, it is acknowledged that “the objectives of radiological protection is to mitigate radiological consequences for people and the environment whilst, at the same time, ensuring sustainable living conditions for affected people, suitable working conditions for the responders, and maintaining the quality of the environment” (ICRP, 2020).

To develop actions concerning the radiological protection of the population and the restoration of decent living conditions in the affected areas, several local initiatives have been carried out in municipalities of Fukushima Prefecture, in which residents and experts have worked together (Igarashi, 2022; Lochard, 2022; Lochard et al., 2020; Schneider et al., 2019; Takamura et al., 2018; Yasutaka et al., 2020). These initiatives were not necessarily implemented to explicitly achieve the radiation protection objectives considered by the ICRP or experts, but they ultimately aligned with those objectives. That said, these actions have been implemented in the form of what may be called a co-expertise process, as recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) in its recent Publication 146 (ICRP, 2020). Developed on the basis of the experience gained in the areas affected in Belarus by the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident, the co-expertise process essentially aims to restore the decision-making capacities of the affected people, which were largely amputated following the accident. The Fukushima Dialogues initiated in 2011 by the ICRP and continued by the NPO Fukushima Dialogue have clearly highlighted that the empowerment of local citizens in managing the consequences of the Fukushima accident is essential to address the human and social dimensions of the accident (Ando et al., 2023; ICRP, 2016; Lochard et al., 2019).

Currently, more than a decade after the accident, the main challenges in the areas affected by the Fukushima accident remain to rebuild family and community life and to ensure public health as well as economic and social sustainability (Ando et al., 2023).

Based on these considerations, a series of discussions between SSH scientists and Japanese experts took place at the ICRP 2023 Symposium held in Tokyo from November 7 to 9, 2023, and at the 36th Annual Meeting of the Society for Risk Analysis Japan held in Sapporo from November 11 to 12, 2023. They highlighted the significance of sharing ongoing reflections on the key role of considering societal issues in the recovery process after the Fukushima accident. To further investigate these topics, an online meeting was organized by CEPN and Nagasaki University on May 25, 2024 (Schneider and Lochard, 2024) during which it was decided to continue the discussions in the form of a workshop. The later was organized in a hybrid format on October 26–27, 2024 by Osaka University (currently, the University of Osaka) under the title "SHS in the Management of the Recovery Process after the Fukushima Accident," in cooperation of Nagasaki University, the Nuclear Protection Evaluation Centre (CEPN), the NPO Fukushima Dialogue, the French Institute of Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN), and the ICRP.

This article reports on the presentations and discussions that took place during the online meeting and the subsequent workshop. The first part provides a brief summary of the key ideas discussed during the online preparatory meeting in May 2024 and the second part provides an overview of the presentations made during the October workshop as well as its main conclusions and possible future developments.

2 Summary of the online meeting on SSH in the management of the recovery process

This online meeting was attended by 15 experts (10 from Japan and 5 from France). The meeting was divided into three sessions as follows (Schneider and Lochard, 2024):

• Self-introductions by participants and four presentations to understand the role of SSH in the recovery process after the Fukushima accident.

• General discussion.

• Discussion on preparations for the workshop in October 2024.

The four presentations introduced the role and contribution of SSH after a large-scale nuclear accident based on ICRP Publication 146 (ICRP, 2020), the social issues and academic perspectives after the Fukushima accident, the design of a dialogue process for the final disposal of removed soil generated by decontamination, and the issues that IRSN is addressing in the field of SSH in the recovery process from nuclear accidents.

2.1 Overall discussion at the meeting

The overall discussion focused on identifying current issues in the recovery process following the Fukushima accident and the role of SSH. Specifically, the following seven points were discussed: “complexity and human dimensions,” “empowerment, co-expertise, and dialogue,” “contextualization, testimony, and historical perspective,” “power balance and justice,” “compromise versus consensus,” “holistic approach and sustainable development,” and “policy of science.”

2.1.1 Complexity and human dimensions

Managing the impacts of the accident involves not only technical issues, but also a wide range of economic, social, health and environmental issues. To address the complexity of the situation, it is necessary to understand these human dimensions (largely relying on SSH research and contribution) and to implement appropriate governance and response measures addressing these dimensions.

2.1.2 Empowerment, co-expertise, and dialogue

The empowerment of stakeholders including citizens in the assessment of the situation and in the decision-process is essential for successful post-accident recovery. The stakeholder involvement has positive impact on the decision-making processes in terms of transparency, fairness, and reflection of diverse social values and contributes to re-establishing the autonomy of affected people. In this context, promoting co-expertise and ensuring spaces for dialogue play a major role in the progress of recovery.

2.1.3 Contextualization, testimony, and historical perspective

In recovery from the accident, it is important to consider the history and socio-economic background of each community. This leads to the identification of management options that are appropriate not only to the radiation issues but also to the specific customs and living conditions of communities. Emphasis should be placed on the testimony of local residents and the characteristics of the area, and the recovery process should be carried out through cooperation between experts and local residents.

2.1.4 Power balance and justice

The process of recovery from the accident requires careful consideration on the power balance. In particular, consideration must be given to gender balance and the involvement of the younger generation. A system must be established to promote cooperation and encourage the participation of a diverse range of stakeholders, including evacuees and new residents. Diversity is useful for addressing complex situations at the local level, but in order to promote the efficient participation of diverse stakeholders after an accident, it will be necessary to establish systems that enable such participation before an accident occurs.

2.1.5 Compromise versus consensus

Within the decision process and the selection of the recovery strategy, compromise is important for recognizing diverse opinions and restoring trust. Given the wide range of values at stake, it is generally difficult to reach a consensus among all concerned citizens on the sensitive issues to be addressed in the recovery process. Since the recovery process is long-term, it is necessary to regularly review compromise and respond flexibly. This also requires establishing clear rules and mechanisms of decision making and building an adaptable recovery process.

2.1.6 Holistic approach and sustainable development

A holistic approach is necessary to comprehensively manage the impact of accidents. Incorporating sustainable development goals enhances local resilience and contribute to framing the possible future for the communities living in affected areas. Here, incorporating the SSH perspective enables to properly address the broader social and ethical issues (Croüail et al., 2020; ICRP, 2018).

2.1.7 Policy of science

The prioritization and handling of scientific issues in radiological protection and management of nuclear accident should be determined with consideration of the social context. In Japan, it is important to understand the history of the atomic bombs, the development of civil nuclear power, and the nuclear accidents. Deepening expertise in radiological protection and appropriately reconciling the opposing views of experts and citizens are key to recovery.

3 Summary of the first Osaka workshop on SSH in the management of the recovery process

The workshop was held based on the proposals made during the online meeting. The aim was to exchange opinions on an interdisciplinary approach to the recovery of Fukushima and radiological protection, from viewpoints of SSH and related science and technology, and to identify issues and lessons learned with a focus on the recovery after the Fukushima accident. Finally, it was also intended to share future perspectives.

Presenters and participants were invited, mainly from experts in the Society for Risk Analysis Japan and organizations related to radiological protection in France. Thirty-five experts (27 from Japan, 6 from France, and 2 from the United States) participated in the workshop. The workshop was divided into an opening session, five presentation sessions (a total of 19 presentations), and a final overall discussion (Tab. 1).

The five presentation sessions were as follows. In Session 1, as an introduction to the workshop, there were presentations on the overview of the online meeting held in May 2024, the co-expertise process, and the negative impact of post-disaster surveys including the mental and physical impact on the people affected by the accident through excessive surveys. In Session 2, under the theme of recovery process and future, there were presentations on the characteristics of new residents in communities affected by the accident, responsibility towards future generations, the power balance from a gender perspective, and the role of SSH in decision-making. In Session 3, under the theme of public health aspects, the long-term course of post-traumatic stress disorder after the accident and the relationship with the human dimensions, and a comparison of risk perceptions of radiation exposure. In Session 4, under the theme of public acceptance, there were presentations on the French cases of collaboration between expertise and decision-making, and four studies on public acceptance of final disposal of soils after the accident (i.e., the role of information dissemination in public debate, evaluation of the quality of discussions in participatory workshops, a method of using games to identify the perspectives of the involved party, and the recent findings on acceptance of final disposal). In Session 5, entitled “education, communication, and culture,” presentations were made on Osaka University’s educational activities in areas affected by the accident, methods for designing deliberative workshops on Fukushima, the relationship among the land, environment, culture, and human dimensions in tourism, life communication after crisis, and communication and stable iodine administration. Sufficient time was allocated for discussion in all the sessions. The discussion was characterized by interdisciplinary exchanges across the boundaries of SSH, medicine, nursing, and environmental sciences.

A general discussion then took place during which seven main points were addressed: “negative impact of surveys,” “harmful rumours,” “sense of values,” “culture,” “power balance,” “communication,” and “education”.

3.1 Negative impact of surveys

Many surveys have been conducted after the accident. While surveys are the cornerstone for formulating important policies for the recovery, they also have negative impacts, including the mental and physical impact on the people affected by the accident and eventually a loss of trust in science (Kobayashi et al., 2025). To overcome this negative impact, it is first necessary to reinforce ethical guides for surveys and then to share awareness among experts, including learning about the culture of the affected area and providing training on survey methods. Furthermore, introducing the co-expertise process would also help break down the imbalance between experts and residents by promoting listening and dialogue between experts and citizens regarding the current situation and the recovery strategy.

3.2 Harmful rumours

The fallout of radioactivity in areas affected by the accident had inevitable economic impacts on the industries in the affected areas, especially food industry, even when the presence of radioactivity in the food is no longer significant (Liu et al., 2025). Similarly, people living or being present in these areas at the time of the accident were stigmatized. SSH can contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms and the resolution of stigma. Furthermore, since harmful rumours on food have been partly caused by overestimating consumer anxiety (Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, 2019; Murakami and Igarashi, 2022), it is important to disseminate information to the market actors and to fill the perception gap among stakeholders at local, regional, national and international levels.

3.3 Sense of values

In the process of recovery after the accident, conflict often exists between groups with different views and values depending on their position and economic and social situation. In decision-making regarding policies and recovery processes, individuals rely on their values, including their sense of dignity, utilitarianism, and the maximin principle (Takada et al., 2025; Yokoyama et al., 2021). A better understanding of the values that people emphasize and the mechanisms of decision-making that they bring, discussed in structured dialogues, would contribute to framing the recovery process and respect people’s points of view and expectations for the future in the affected areas.

3.4 Culture

New visions of the communities after the accident are often emerging, including recovery through the migration of new residents and tourism, but it is also necessary to inherit and maintain the culture and history of the communities that existed before the accident (Doering and Kato, 2021). In addition, the mental and physical health of individuals may depend in part on the relationship of the individual with their family and local community before the accident (Hori et al., 2024). It is necessary to take into account the cultural aspects specific to the communities when addressing health issues as well as socio-economic issues. Preserving the social network and the history of the community is useful to connect and allow a path between the past, the present and the future.

3.5 Power balance

As in the previous online meeting, the issue of power balance was discussed. In addition to the point that women’s voices have not ben easily shared in the recovery process after the accident, the importance of involving new residents was also emphasized (Kobayashi et al., 2024). There was also the opinion that the full picture of the actual situation of power balance has not been fully grasped. There is a need to develop a methodology for understanding the actual situation of power balance in society from various human dimensions. Comprehending the power balance and the dynamics induced by the accident and the recovery process could contribute to promoting respectful and robust governance for the future of the communities affected by the accident.

3.6 Communication

The implementation of the post-accident recovery process largely relies on the involvement and behaviour of the local citizens. Therefore, the involvement process and the development of adequate communication with the local residents are crucial. People who stay in the community and are integrated into the local community play a major role in communication. It is also necessary to clarify the mutual roles of experts who are involved from inside and outside the community as well as to rely on the development of citizen science approaches. Furthermore, it is necessary for experts involved in communication to learn about the experiences and life philosophies of the residents affected by the accident, and to pass them on to future generations and external communities (Ochi, 2021).

3.7 Education

Both natural science and SSH contribute to the accident recovery in a mutually complementary way. It is necessary to establish an educational system that fosters human resources with integrated expertise in these sciences. The methodology for improving moderator skills should be widely shared within the scientific community. Furthermore, the development of the practical radiological protection culture as a result of the implementation of the co-expertise process plays a crucial role for the success of the recovery. Better understanding the components and the development process of this culture would be beneficial for the recovery as well as for preparedness to post-accident situations.

4 Concluding remarks

The role of SSH in the recovery process after a nuclear accident and particularly following the Fukushima accident, was confirmed by identifying issues, lessons learned, and future perspectives. The participants agreed to hold further discussion, and the following points were debated:

• Accumulating issues and solutions in post-accident recovery.

• Clarifying the actual situation regarding the power balance for improving the individuals’ and communities’ life.

• Integrating knowledge from various fields in the post-accident recovery process.

• Creating horizontal approach beyond nuclear accidents to other disasters and social issues based on comprehensive lessons and future perspectives.

• Deriving a methodology for utilizing knowledge from various fields in decision-making.

• Increasing the number of experts in SSH and related science and technology regarding the post-accident recovery and developing human resources with relevant knowledge in collaboration with the scientific community

The issues, lessons learned, and future perspectives that emerged from the workshop can be summarized as follows:

• It is important to clarify the role of SSH in the post-nuclear accident recovery process and to investigate current issues for improving the individuals’ and communities’ life from a variety of perspectives, including human, social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects.

• It is necessary to integrate various perspectives on the post-accident recovery, promote the training of experts, and derive effective decision-making methods.

• The goal is set to develop a wide range of lessons that can be applied to future disasters and social issues.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the presenters and participants in the SSH online meeting and workshop.

Funding

This work was supported by “The Nippon Foundation − Osaka University Project for Infectious Disease Prevention.”

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Data availability statement

The research data associated with this article are included within the article.

Author contribution statement

M. Murakami: Conceptualization, Writing − Original draft.

T. Schneider: Conceptualization, Reviewing and Editing.

J. Lochard: Conceptualization, Reviewing and Editing.

R. Ando: Conceptualization, Reviewing and Editing.

Ethics approval

Ethical approval was not required.

Informed consent

This article does not contain any studies involving human subjects.

References

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